Integrating markerless augmented reality into project-based learning to foster spatial reasoning and self-regulated learning in junior high school: A formative evaluation
Keywords:
spatial reasoning, self-regulated learning, project-based learning, augmented reality, formative evaluationAbstract
Spatial reasoning is a critical cognitive skill in geometry learning, yet many students continue to struggle with visualizing and manipulating three-dimensional objects. While Project-Based Learning (PBL) and Augmented Reality (AR) have each been applied in mathematics education, the integration of markerless AR into PBL with explicit self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies remains largely underexplored—particularly at the junior high school level. This study reports a formative evaluation of a PBL-based worksheet embedded with SRL prompts and supported by a markerless AR application, aimed at enhancing students’ spatial reasoning and self-regulation in geometry. The evaluation engaged six expert validators (content, media, pedagogy) and nine ninth-grade students in a small-scale trial. Data were collected through expert validation sheets, and a student response questionnaire, and analyzed using the Content Validity Index (CVI) and descriptive statistics. Results showed perfect agreement across all expert evaluations (S-CVI = 1.00), indicating high content, media, and pedagogical validity. Student responses were highly positive (M = 3.64 out of 4), particularly regarding collaboration and engagement, though some technical limitations emerged on lower-end devices. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of the developed learning design and lay a strong foundation for large-scale implementation. This study contributes an innovative instructional model that integrates markerless AR, PBL, and SRL to address persistent challenges in developing spatial reasoning, while aligning with Generation Z’s preference for visual, interactive, and technology-rich learning environments.
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